urban school definition

Washington D.C.: National Center for Educational Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences. The comparable income maximum for reduced price breakfast or lunch is $43,568 (USDA, 2013). On half of the measures, urban high poverty schools did compare For good measure, he published the results in the newspaper for full public view (Tyack, 1974). As Payne (2008) explained, however, the magic word systemic . Originating in the business sector, turnaround referred to rapid school improvement achieved through dramatic interventions such as staff reconstitution (Duke, 2012). Achievement in urban schools: What makes the difference? that students from schools with high concentrations of low income schools and their students compared unfavorably to other high Even as business and professional elites attempted to consolidate power in the one best system in the early 20th century, community representatives, ethnic power brokers, and others fought to maintain degrees of local control and input in each citys educational affairs and governance (Tyack, 1974). For instance, urban school policies created by distant, delocalized outsiders have routinely engendered unanticipated local effects and fierce community resistance. were more pronounced at younger ages and many diminish with age. Less access to science and math resources. Local funding largely comes from property taxes. . A fourth enduring tension manifests itself in the ideas that urban school reforms promise social justice for marginalized youth, but they end up delivering financial returns for educational vendors. regular medical care. The way we name places reflects what we think of them. As Paynes caution suggests, accountability can resonate as a problem in urban education reform. nonurban schools and students are due to this higher concentration . Urban teachers had fewer resources available to them and less Another tension in urban school reform resonates in locating the proper fulcrum of change: Can a school district be transformed from new leaders at the top, or must change occur from community constituents agitating from inside and outside local schools? Still, bold moves are called for if public education is to cease its role as one of the structural determinants of poverty. Meanwhile, scholars questioned the degree to which schools could help youth overcome the effects of poverty, race, and other socioeconomic factors (Coleman et al., 1966; Jenks, 1972). life than those who had attended other schools (figures J and A decade later, Ronald Edmonds (1979) asserted, Inequity in American education derives first and foremost from our failure to educate the children of the poor (p. 15). The dictionary definition of urban is simply "a term pertaining to a city or town." . ESEAs Title I delivered funding for supplementary educational services as a means to reallocate resources to those most in need (Lytle, 2007; Spencer, 2012). postsecondary degrees at the same rate as others. How can public policy surmount the many barriers to high quality education for all children? described above to compare urban students with students in other Some factors that consistently matter besides local context include race, ethnicity, and poverty; politics and power; and trust. However, the conversations about the heightened challenges facing students in urban public schools must recognize that on average, 64 percentof students receive free or reduced price lunches, indicating that their families are at or near the federal poverty level. Next, I examine five enduring urban school reform tensions that have emanated around problems and solutions, schools and community, top-down and grassroots efforts, social justice and financial returns, and small-scale and large-scale. I remain mindful that urban can evoke negative connotationsbut such is not my intent. as likely as their non-urban counterparts to be offered and to poverty schools compared with other high poverty schools--are You cannot simply fix city schools in order to fix city communities and people. Question of teacher assignments, merit pay and evaluations based on student test scores are undeniably fraught with tension and dissent across the political spectrum. Given the close connection between urban school reform and money-making opportunities, Delpit (2012) explained, I am left in my more cynical moments with the thought that poor black children have become the vehicle by which rich white people give money to their friends. (p. xv). Even among people who think that schools are doing a good job overall are those who believe that in certain schools, conditions are abysmal. Poverty and urban school reform became inextricably linked in initiatives like the federal Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), which was signed into law in 1965 by President Lyndon Johnson. Teacher Retention in High-Poverty, Urban Schools PDF Teachers in the Hood: Hollywood s Middle-Class Fantasy New York: Education Development Center/Center for Children & Technology. 11 million between 1980 and 1990, the proportion of those students In addition, a long-established truism in school reform (regardless of its specific geographic location) is that teachers and students are the most frequent intended recipients of reform, but teachers and students rarely have authentic voices in developing reforms (Tyack & Cuban, 1995). On these measures, large differences Finally, testimony and reports Unequal Opportunity: Race and Education Scholars have demonstrated that making incremental changes to schools is possible, but the fundamental changes often promoted in reform rhetoric rarely materialize. schools and others are no greater than predicted, it indicates These previous efforts extended into the latter part of the century. other groups to have attended schools with gifted and talented Urban Dictionary: Urban School were instances where urban students and schools were similar to Urban school district means a school district that the department does not consider a rural or small rural school district. (1999). Light, D., McDermott, M., & Honey, M. (2002). Moreover, this report provides evidence that challenges the perception to be in school full time (73 percent), and were living above often similar to suburban high poverty schools on these measures. For instance, through the 19th century and well into the 20th century, Irish Americans, Italian Americans, and Jewish Americans were considered distinct ethnic groups, but by the latter part of the 20th century, they were considered White (Roediger, 2006). Just as with accountability, then, charter schools have engendered open admiration and fierce criticism. and poverty concentration added together would have predicted. This article provides an introduction to urban school reform in the United States, with particular emphasis on how it has progressed since the 1960s. For instance, urban school policies created by distant, delocalized outsiders have routinely engendered unanticipated local effects and fierce community resistance. Once they reach this understanding they are more likely to quickly adjust to the roles they will be expected to play, and to take advantage of community resources where they find themselves teaching. range of factors, including student population and background More than a decade ago, physical conditions in urban schools predicted academic engagement and performance (Lewis et al., 1999) but basic materials including textbooks, science equipment and desks were generally in disrepair or absent. She overcame initial skepticism to earn abiding trust (Payne, 2008). Thus, conditions in high-poverty schools too often render them sites of developmental risk rather than competent assets that would enhance student developmental outcomes. Cities usually offer strong public transportation options. In terms of accountability, the idea that urban schools and educators must be held responsible for student performance is a long-standing one. Where a child is born has enormous influence over their educational future. Despite such apparent unanimity regarding the importance of city schools, disputes have emerged over the proper structural and systemic alterations necessary to improve education. family instability, and poor health. to have families with certain characteristics that have been found the large overall variation on these measures by urbanicity and poverty concentration were expected, therefore, to have particularly The research literature in teaching, learning, and best practice is robust. well-being in jeopardy, and were less likely to have access to There are other possibilities to consider as well. other high poverty schools did not usually exceed differences Their actions included teacher dismissals, leading the predominantly White, Jewish teachers to embark upon a citywide strike through their union (Perlstein, 2004). I also discuss several enduring reform tensions that have remained unresolved in city school improvement efforts. How do school funding formulas work? - Urban Institute The school has more than 11% of English Language Learners. free or reduced price lunch), whereas 10 percent of suburban students For instance, the rise of standardized testing has generated a high-stakes, narrow educational ethos that can negatively affect the socioemotional lives of children and adults in schools; devolve the complex act of schooling into mere test preparation; neglect to acknowledge (or even denigrate) the cultural backgrounds of students; and encourage adult-led cheating scandals (Delpit, 2012; Ravitch, 2010; Vasquez Heilig, Khalifa, & Tillman, 2014). Suburban campuses typically offer access to both outdoor activities and entertainment in nearby cities. A specific focus of this report is how poverty relates to the In the end, we are left with this enduring tension in urban school reform: Solutions are problems and problems are solutions. In subsequent decades, disputes and negotiations around race became an indelible aspect of urban school district reform efforts (Lipman, 2011). When these in the school. New money might allow districts to enact policy initiatives and structural reforms. Previous research has suggested of students in urban and other schools-particularly in urban high Charles Payne (2008) explained, As they go into more and tougher schools, they find that their earlier experiences did not fully prepare them for dealing with the array of problems urban schools present . The evidence is quite plain that high quality early childhood education leads to intellectual and academic gains in the short run as well as long-term improvement (i.e., sleeper effects) in life chances for poor children (Knudson et al., 2006). The impact of ubiquitous portable technology on an urban school: Project Hiller. . There is much talk today, for example, about the importance of STEM careers for the future of our youth and for our country. The best we can do is be cautious in our interpretations and look at other measures where possible, particularly graduation rates and postsecondary activities. (p. 7). Paris, city and capital of France, located along the Seine River, in the north-central part of the country. Heavily populated area of a city characterized by poverty, poor, dilapidated or dirty, Wider range of acceptable thinking and acting. Thus, this study allows comparisons to be made A New Era in Urban Education? | Brookings Since the mid-1960s in particular, this resonant belief, as articulated in different forms by politicians, interest groups, local communities, and the broader public, has served as motivational impetus for small- and large-scale school change efforts. This revised funding formula is still in the very early stages of the political process (i.e., sausage-making), so it is unclear exactly what will result for the most vulnerable students in Californias public schools. Despite such apparent unanimity regarding the importance of city schools, essential reform actors have engaged in intense disputes over the proper structural and systemic alterations necessary to improve education. in the 1980s and examines their outcomes through 1990. Their arrival displaced working-class African American and Latino families and increased an areas housing values (Lipman, 2011; Lipman & Haines, 2007). Hence, the phenomenon of urban school reform has repeatedly encountered a central question of urban politics and power: who should and will control school change efforts? Source: http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2004077. locations. of them would have left high school, but had similar participation Education and urban schools - American Psychological Association (APA) characteristics of the students and schools studied. Yet a lasting sociopolitical imperative to provide at least some symbolic evidence of efforts to improve urban schools virtually ensures that a new reform will soon be on its way (Payne, 2008). You could not be signed in, please check and try again. About the ratings: GreatSchools ratings are based on a comparison of test results for all schools in the state. or rural schools at both the elementary and secondary levels. In what has become an enduring tension in urban education reform, ideas and initiatives that some frame as solutions to urban school difficulties, others frame as problems that may exacerbate conditions. locations while accounting for differences in school poverty concentration, For the purpose of this research, urban schools mean schools whose student population is mostly brown and black and come from low economic areas. a favorable circumstance). Since the mid-1960s in particular, this resonant belief, as articulated in different forms by politicians, interest groups, local communities, and the broader public, has coalesced into a sustaining motivational force in both policy and practice. refer to schools that serve students from poverty-stricken communities (Kraft et al. they were also more likely to be absent and possess weapons than The record is clear that urban schools can and do make a difference for urban youth of color. & Tobin, R. (2004). . Much ofHudley's scholarly activities have been dedicated to understanding children's aggressive behaviors across samples of students that vary by social class, gender, ethnicity, age and region of residence to determine the generalizability of attrition theory to typical understudied populations. Disproportionate attention is paid in the existing research literature toward what Milner calls urban intensives; hence, the examples here reflect some geographic diversity while highlighting reforms in major cities such as Chicago and New York. While not mandating specific education policy, in 2012, the voters approved a tax increase that can provide schools and districts, particularly those serving high-poverty communities and students, additional funding to equalize per-pupil expenditures across the state. As accounts of schools in cities like Chicago demonstrate (Lipman, 2011), over time the corporate-bureaucratic model engendered as much politics, often in the form of community dissent and protest, as it prevented Moreover, the new order generated extensive bureaucracies based on the principles of organizational science and efficiency (Tyack, 1974). In spite of these tensions, faith in urban school reform has persisted, thanks to exemplary city schools and programs that have helped students thrive academically. Rather than addressing the school plant or academic programs, this initiative is grounded in the belief that families can support student achievement if they are able to lift their vision from a daily struggle for survival. students were more likely to watch television excessively, less Under this construct, the one best system, though often racially exclusive, provides some form of structured opportunity to urban immigrant youth through its rights of open access. high poverty schools on measures of school experiences, but were And one day, the belief continues, school reform will succeed at a significant scale . Or successful programs can just fade away, succumbing to the demoralized, irrational nature of the status quo in urban education. Urban Schools: Executive Summary - National Center for Education poverty schools and their students compare with their counterparts Combined with deficient supplies, materials and opportunities to learn, deteriorating physical plants, often another characteristic of high-poverty urban schools, can diminish student engagement and achievement. less likely to feel safe in school, or to spend much time on homework In 1874, for example, a superintendent in Portland, Oregon, introduced a uniform curriculum and tested all students to see if they had mastered its material. State-funded, independently operated charter schools are intended to increase educational options for children and families (Berends, 2014). As these statements suggest, an underlying desire for basic social justice for children of color has consistently fueled the quest for urban school reform and improvement. Economic, neurobiological, and behavioral perspectives on building Americas future workforce. Given the greater challenges The unit of analysis is an important factor, then, when considering school reform. . Declaring that public school systems are protected public monopolies with only minimal competition from private and parochial schools, he called for realistic, aggressive, and viable competitors in the form of schools operated outside the traditional district structures by states, the federal government, and businesses (Clark, 1968, p. 111). schools who belonged to an Hispanic or "other" minority The researchers explain, through the lens of literacy theories, how viewing teaching as a form of literacy can help us to understand the problem of attrition. low poverty schools on most of the indicators of student background, As Payne (2008) noted, The compromise reached was that the program started with four schools the first year and added four more the second year, and even that proved to be too many (p. 174). As cities deindustrialized and lost high-wage, stable jobs in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, chronic, multigenerational poverty became a common condition in many urban communities (Kantor & Brenzel, 1992; Rury, 2012; Wilson, 1987). Another issue is that certain charter schools have failed to offer proper services for children who needed special education (Delpit, 2012). Importantly, although common themes and experiences have surfaced in reform efforts as they have occurred across different urban areas in the United States, historian David Tyack (1974) asserted that the [sic] city school does not exist, and never did (p. 5). levels of experience and salaries as their suburban counterparts, Just as differences in the substance and points of entry of change efforts have helped define urban school reform, so have differences in determining what is meant by the word urban. At the same time, significant energies and efforts have been exerted toward grassroots reforms. There's an Education Gap Between Rural and Urban Communities. Can evidence that students in urban schools are more likely than those Students in high poverty schools regardless of location were concentration of poverty in urban schools is considered. Often at issue has been the notion of just who should and will control change efforts; politics, in various forms, appears as a necessary condition and inevitable calculation in urban school reform. 315.312.2500, Links to Information Regarding Urban Schools, Consumer Information: Student Right to Know, Worldly sophistication; fashionable (social/cultural perspective), Large city and center of population and culture (cultural perspective), Center of population, finance, commerce (geographic perspective), A group of people forming a smaller social unit within a larger one, and sharing common experiences, A city with at least 50,000 people (U.S. Census), Sections of a large city especially when crowded or blighted. We should be able to serve these children because we are a great nation, a nation with extraordinary talents, skills, and resources. outcomes than students from other schools. Defining a "rural school" The Scottish Ministers use the Scottish Government Urban Rural Classification to determine which schools in Scotland should be considered rural schools and included in the Rural School List for the purposes of the 2010 Act. are doing a good job overall are those who believe that in certain As Payne (2008) explained, [I]n the 1960s . were some important exceptions. exceptions: they were more likely than their rural counterparts For Clark and others like him, expanding the educational options available to urban families was an important solution to larger issues, including poor schooling, poverty, and political disempowerment. What Makes a Good School Culture? variation, differences between urban high poverty schools and Some urban educators attempt to address this tension in their work on a daily basis through authentic community engagement. compared with those in other high poverty schools: Although students in urban high poverty schools compared less percent of urban students attended these high poverty schools For many reformers, such success stories demonstrate that viable routes toward enabling academic achievement for more children living in urban areas do exist. Suggesting the close connection between education funding and corporate interests, a lobbyist from the audiovisual manufacturers lobby was able to negotiate funding for audiovisual equipment into the first three Titles in the approved ESEA legislation in the 1960s (Davies, 2007). the number of students in urban schools remained stable at about . Others have contended, however, that drastic socioeconomic conditions in an urban community limit the potential for significant educational improvement in schools. These lasting dilemmas often emerged after common desires to improve urban schools progressed to polarized means of reform action. afterschool experiences of students in urban high poverty schools The close connection between a citys financial interests and its educational interests has caused a call for systemic reform in the form of coordinated efforts to align a citys economic initiatives and social service activities (including schools) through political means (Stone et al., 2001). . Meanwhile, in urban classrooms, teachers (many or most of them White) taught students from backgrounds different than their own. participate in certain programs and courses, with the following They were also more likely to engage in He wrote, If education itself is of no value then there can be no significance in the struggle to use the schools as instruments for justice and mobility . defined the problem as quarrelsome school boards; inept management that couldnt clean buildings, deliver supplies, or help teachers do their jobs; and little accountability for producing satisfactory academic outcomes among administrators and teachers . It can refer to the situations and demands that characterize teaching and learning in large metropolitan areas. Such pressure can also put them at risk of burnout and departure (Cucchiara, Rooney, & Robertson-Kraft, 2015). Using Second, initiatives like the Comer School Development Program and, later, the Harlem Childrens Zone sought to establish symbiotic connections among urban schools, families, and communities (Comer, 2009; Payne, 2008; Tough, 2009). in other locations to have characteristics such as poverty, difficulty English in those locations. characteristics, school experiences, and student outcomes--there In high-stakes turnaround schools, teachers with unsupportive principals can feel pressure to focus narrowly on test score improvement to the detriment of other educational goals. However, the education that poor, urban students in public schools receive is demonstrably insufficient to make them competitive with their more advantaged, middle and upper income peers. Retrieved from the Institute for Research on Poverty, University of Wisconsin-Madison. PDF Rural Education Draft Policy in other locations across many areas of concern, according to By the 1980s, and then into the 2000s, test-based accountability for public schools became one of the nations operational school policy paradigms. Increasingly, urban also implies demographics characterized by significant populations of African Americans, Latinos, and other groups distinct from the countrys predominant White racial demographic (Foster, 2007). and to compare students in urban high poverty schools with those The school has been designated as Focus or Priority by NYSED. Condition of America's public school facilities. their non-urban counterparts after accounting for poverty concentration, speaking English, urban students were more likely than suburban counterparts on many measures even after accounting for the higher Suburban colleges fall somewhere in between large cities and farming communities. least one parent in a two-parent family working. poverty concentration, urban high poverty schools and their students, success in the labor market. Lewis, L., Snow, K., Farris, E., Smerdon, B., Cronen, S., & Kaplan, J. Moreover, urban educators report as did teachers in urban high poverty schools compared with those When Slum Schools and the proportion who were black stayed about the same. who were living in poverty or who had difficulty speaking English Given the limited length of this work, my main intent is conceptual rather than comprehensive. and 25 percent of rural students did so (figure B). Private interests, such as foundations that support charter schools, provide start-up institutions with funding to help give them the best possible chance to outperform traditional public schools, which may in turn promote the further privatization of public schooling (Lipman, 2011). at least as likely to have a parent who completed college while accounting for the higher concentration of poverty in urban This page has been archived and is no longer being updated regularly. Substandard curriculum, facilities and physical plants are undeniable stressors sometimes found in high-poverty schools.
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